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Atlantic: One of the world’s five oceans, it is second in size only to the Pacific. It separates Europe and Africa to the east from North and South America to the west.

atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.

average: (in science) A term for the arithmetic mean, which is the sum of a group of numbers that is then divided by the size of the group.

cholera: A bacterial disease that infects the small intestine, causing severe diarrhea, vomiting and dehydration. It is spread by germs from feces that contaminate water or food.

climate: The weather conditions that typically exist in one area, in general, or over a long period.

climate change: Long-term, significant change in the climate of Earth. It can happen naturally or in response to human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.

computer model: A program that runs on a computer that creates a model, or simulation, of a real-world feature, phenomenon or event.

coral: Marine animals that often produce a hard and stony exoskeleton and tend to live on reefs (the exoskeletons of dead ancestor corals).

cyclone: A strong, rotating vortex, usually made of wind. Notable examples include a tornado or hurricane.

disrupt: (n. disruption) To break apart something; interrupt the normal operation of something; or to throw the normal organization (or order) of something into disorder.

drought: An extended period of abnormally low rainfall; a shortage of water resulting from this.

El Niño: Extended periods when the surface water around the equator in the eastern and central Pacific warms. Scientists declare the arrival of an El Niño when that water warms by at least 0.4 degree Celsius (0.72 degree Fahrenheit) above average for five or more months in a row. El Niños can bring heavy rainfall and flooding to the West Coast of South America. Meanwhile, Australia and Southeast Asia may face a drought and high risk of wildfires. In North America, scientists have linked the arrival of El Niños to unusual weather events — including ice storms, droughts and mudslides.

ENSO: (short for El Niño-Southern Oscillation) A natural cycle of changing temperatures in the ocean and atmosphere, near the equator in the Pacific Ocean. During ENSO events, atmospheric pressure also changes in affected areas. (see also El Niño)

equator: An imaginary line around Earth that divides Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

equatorial: (adj.) Having to do with Earth's equator or its general vicinity.

global warming: The gradual increase in the overall temperature of Earth’s atmosphere due to the greenhouse effect. This effect is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons and other gases in the air, many of them released by human activity.

hurricane: A tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and has winds of 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour or greater. When such a storm occurs in the Pacific Ocean, people refer to it as a typhoon.

jet stream: A fast-flowing, high-altitude air current. On Earth, the major jet streams flow from west to east in the mid-latitude regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

La Niña: Extended periods when the surface water around the equator in the eastern Pacific cools for long stretches of time. Scientists will announce the arrival of a La Niña (Lah-NEEN-yah) when the average temperature there drops by at least 0.4° C (0.72° degree F). Impacts on global weather during a La Niña tend to be the reverse of those triggered by an El Niño: Now, Central and South America may face severe droughts while Australia floods.

malaria: A disease caused by a parasite that invades the red blood cells. The parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes, largely in tropical and subtropical regions.

mean: One of several measures of the “average size” of a data set. Most commonly used is the arithmetic mean, obtained by adding the data and dividing by the number of data points.

meteorologist: Someone who studies weather and climate events.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: (or NOAA) A science agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce. Initially established in 1807 under another name (The Survey of the Coast), this agency focuses on understanding and preserving ocean resources, including fisheries, protecting marine mammals (from seals to whales), studying the seafloor and probing the upper atmosphere.

outbreak: The sudden emergence of disease in a population of people or animals. The term may also be applied to the sudden emergence of devastating natural phenomena, such as earthquakes or tornadoes.

Pacific: The largest of the world’s five oceans. It separates Asia and Australia to the west from North and South America to the east. The term can also refer to island nations that sit within the Pacific Ocean.

precipitation: (in chemistry) The creation of a solid from a solution. This can occur if there is too much of a chemical to dissolve completely into a solution. It also can be a sign that some chemical reaction is taking place. (in meteorology) A term for water falling from the sky. It can be in any form, from rain and sleet to snow or hail.

reef: A ridge of rock, coral or sand. It rises up from the seafloor and may come to just above or just under the water’s surface.

rift: (v.) to break or split apart, such as a friendship. (in geology) The separation of a span of Earth’s surface along a geologic fault as a result of plate tectonics. (n.) The term for such a break or split.

Rift Valley Fever: A viral disease, it takes its name from where it was first identified, in the Rift Valley of East Africa. Mosquitoes spread the virus to people and animals. Infected people typically get no more than mild symptoms (such as fever, weakness, back pain or dizziness) and can get better without treatment in a few days. Livestock often suffer more. Not only can they get sick, but also die. Pregnant animals may lose their fetus. Outbreaks of this disease often show up after heavy rains, which boosts the reproduction of the mosquitoes that transmit this virus.

sea: An ocean (or region that is part of an ocean). Unlike lakes and streams, seawater — or ocean water — is salty.

spawn: To quickly cause something to come into being. (in biology) To release or fertilize eggs in an aquatic environment.

trillion: A number representing a million million — or 1,000,000,000,000 — of something.

tropical cyclone: A strong, rotating storm. These usually form over tropical areas around the equator where the water is warm. Tropical cyclones have strong winds of more than 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour and usually have heavy rain. Large ones in the Atlantic are known as hurricanes. Those in the Pacific are termed typhoons.

upwelling: (in oceanography) A rise to the warm surface of cold — usually nutrient-rich — waters from the dark depths of the ocean. It usually takes place along the western coastlines of continents in the subtropics. It develops when prevailing winds push the surface water away from the shore. This pulls deeper water up to take its place. (in geology) The process by which material rises from Earth’s middle layer into its outer layer, where it will become part of the tectonic plates.

weather: Conditions in the atmosphere at a localized place and a particular time. It is usually described in terms of particular features, such as air pressure, humidity, moisture, any precipitation (rain, snow or ice), temperature and wind speed. Weather constitutes the actual conditions that occur at any time and place. It’s different from climate, which is a description of the conditions that tend to occur in some general region during a particular month or season.

Journal:​ ​​J.S. Wan et al. Targeted marine cloud brightening weakens subsequent El Niño. Science Advances. Vol. 12, July 10, 2026. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adx3012.

Journal:​ ​​G.A. Meehl et al. 2019-2020 Australian bushfire smoke, multi-year La Niña, and implications for the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). npj Climate and Atmospheric Science. Vol. 8, August 30, 2025. doi: 10.1038/s41612-025-01204-8.

Journal:​ ​​C.W. Callahan and J.S. Mankin. Persistent effect of El Niño on global economic growth. Science. Vol. 380, May 18, 2023. doi: 10.1126/science.adf2983.

Journal:​ ​​J.M. Haywood et al. Climate intervention using marine cloud brightening (MCB) compared with stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) in the UKESM1 climate model. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 23, December 14, 2023. doi: 10.5194/acp-23-15305-2023.